From: The Pursuit of Happiness
Mindfulness and Positive Thinking
Optimism
Optimism is a trait that should become more common, judging by Winston
Churchill’s famous quote that “a pessimist sees the difficulty in every
opportunity; an optimist sees the opportunity in every difficulty.”
Optimism has been proven to improve the immune system, prevent chronic
disease, and help people cope with unfortunate news.
Gratitude is
associated with optimism and has been determined that grateful people
are happier, receive more social support, are less stressed, and are
less depressed. Recent research indicates that optimists and pessimists
approach problems differently, and their ability to cope successfully
with adversity differs as a result.
Martin Seligman defines optimism as reacting to problems with a sense
of confidence and high personal ability. Specifically, optimistic
people believe that negative events are temporary, limited in scope
(instead of pervading every aspect of a person’s life), and manageable.
Of course, optimism, like other psychological states and
characteristics, exists on a continuum.
People can also change their
levels of optimism depending on the situations they are in. For
simplicity’s sake, the studies discussed herein will talk about people
at the higher end of the spectrum as optimists and people on the lower
end as pessimists. This section will review what is known about the
benefits of optimism and evidence suggesting optimism is a learnable
skill.
Optimistic Explanatory Style: Making Sense of Bad Events
Imagine two students who receive the same poor grade on an exam. The
first student thinks, “I’m such a failure! I always do poorly in this
subject. I can’t do anything right!” The second student thinks, “This
test was difficult! Oh well, it’s just one test in one class. I tend to
do well in other subjects.” These students are exhibiting two types of
what psychologists call “explanatory styles”. Explanatory styles reflect
three attributions that a person forms about a recent event.
Did it
happen because of me (internal) or something or someone else (external)?
Will this always happen to me (stable) or can I change what caused it
(unstable)? Is this something that affects all aspects of my life
(pervasive) or was it a solitary occurrence (limited)? Pessimistic
people tend to view problems as internal, unchangeable, and pervasive,
whereas optimistic people are the opposite. Pessimism has been linked
with depression, stress, and anxiety (Kamen & Seligman, 1987),
whereas optimism has been shown to serve as a protective factor against
depression, as well as a number of serious medical problems, including
coronary heart disease (Tindle et al., 2009).
Optimistic mothers even
deliver healthier, heavier babies (Lobel, DeVincent, Kaminer, &
Meyer, 2000)! Optimism seems to have a tremendous number of benefits;
consider several detailed below.
Optimism and Physical Health
Few outcomes are more important than staying alive, and optimism is
linked to life longevity. Maruta, Colligan, Malinchoc, and Offord (2000)
examined whether explanatory styles served as risk factors for early
death. With a large longitudinal sample collected in the mid-1960s, the
researchers categorized medical patients as optimistic, mixed, or
pessimistic.
Optimism was operationalized using parts of the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory. The researchers found that for every
10 point increase in a person’s score on their optimism scale, the risk
of early death decreased by 19%. Considering that, for a middle-aged
person of average health, the difference between sudden death risk
factors for smokers and non-smokers is 5-10%, the protective effect of
optimism found in this study is massive.
Optimism also plays a role in the recovery from illness and disease.
Multiple studies have investigated the role of optimism in people
undergoing treatment for cancer (e.g., Carver et al., 1993; Schou,
Ekeberg, & Ruland, 2005). These studies have found that optimistic
people experience less distress when faced with potentially
life-threatening cancer diagnoses.
For example, Schou and colleagues
(2005) found that a superior “fighting spirit” found in optimists
predicted substantially better quality of life one year after breast
cancer surgery. Optimism also predicted less disruption of normal life,
distress, and fatigue in one study of women who were undergoing painful
treatment for breast cancer (Carver, Lehman, & Antoni, 2003). In
this case, optimism appeared to protect against an urge to withdraw from
social activities, which may be important for healing. People who tend
to be more optimistic and more mindful had an increase in sleep quality
(Howell et al. 2008).
There is also evidence that optimism can protect
against the development of chronic diseases. A sample of middle-aged
women was tested for precursors to atherosclerosis at a baseline and
three years later. The women who endorsed greater levels of pessimism at
the baseline assessment were significantly more likely to experience
thickening arteries, while optimistic women experienced no such increase
in thickness (Matthews, Raikkonen, Sutton-Tyrell, & Kuller, 2004).
Optimism can have an effect on a person’s immune system, as well. In
one study, elderly adults were immunized for influenza (Kohut, Cooper,
Nickolaus, Russell, & Cunnick, 2002). Two weeks later, their immune
response to the vaccination was measured. Greater optimism predicted
greater antibody production and better immune outcomes.
Five studies
have also investigated optimism and disease progression in people
infected with HIV. Ironson and colleagues (2005) found, in a large
sample, that optimism and positive HIV immune response were linearly
related: people highest in optimism had the best suppression of viral
load and a greater number of helper T cells, both important parts of the
progression of HIV. Furthermore, another study found that optimistic
men who were HIV-positive had lower mortality over a longitudinal study
(Blomkvist et al., 1994).
Another study that examined the link between
optimism and immune system functioning was conducted by Segerstrom and
Sephton (2010). This study examined a sample of entering law students
over five time points in their first year of law school. Dispositional
optimism (the tendency to be generally optimistic about your life) and
optimism about law school, in particular, were assessed, along with
measures of positive and negative affect (to determine whether any
relationships between optimism and immune system functioning could be
better explained through positive or negative affect). This study found
that optimism predicted superior cell-mediated immunity, an important
part of the immune system’s response to infectious agents.
Furthermore,
an individual’s changes in optimism levels from time point to time point
were associated with changes in immune functioning: as optimism
increased from one time point to another, immune function increased, as
well. Furthermore, negative affect did not predict changes in immune
function. What this means is that optimism appears to have a unique
value among the factors that compose a person’s immune system.
Taylor
and colleagues (1992) found that optimism predicted better psychological
coping post-HIV-diagnosis, as well as more perceived control over
personal health and well-being. Thus, it appears that an optimistic
outlook appears not only to be strongly positively related to a healthy
immune system but also to better outcomes for people with compromised
immune systems.
Optimism has also been investigated in health-related behaviors. In
examining the risk of developing alcohol dependence, one study found
that optimism protected against drinking problems in people with a
family history of alcoholism (Ohannessian, Hesselbrock, Tennen, &
Affleck, 1993). As family history is one of the greatest risk factors
for developing substance dependence, optimism’s protective effects
against its influence may be very important for public health efforts.
Beyond helping to prevent substance use problems from developing,
optimism may predict better outcomes from efforts to quit using. In a
study by Strack, Carver, and Blaney (1987), optimism predicted greater
success in treatment for alcohol abuse, with optimistic people more
likely to remain in treatment and abstinent than pessimists. Pregnant
women who are higher in optimism have been shown to be less likely to
abuse substances while pregnant (Park, Moore, Turner, & Adler,
1997). Optimism appears to be an important factor in risky health
behaviors: both whether people choose to engage in them and whether they
choose to quit.
The studies described above share a common theme: optimism can have
profound effects on a person’s physical health. The mere act of
expecting positive outcomes and being hopeful can boost a person’s
immune system, protect against harmful behaviors, prevent chronic
disease, and help people cope following troubling news. Optimism can
even predict a longer life. Among psychological constructs, optimism may
be one of the most important predictors of physical health.
Optimism and Psychological Health
Evidence suggests that optimism is important in coping with difficult
life events. Optimism has been linked to better responses to various
difficulties, from the more mundane (e.g., transition to college
[Brissette, Scheier, & Carver, 2002]) to the more extreme (e.g.,
coping with missile attacks [Zeidner & Hammer, 1992]).
Optimism
appears to play a protective role, assisting people in coping with
extraordinarily trying incidents. Furthermore, optimism has been found
to correlate positively with life satisfaction and self-esteem (Lucas,
Diener, & Suh, 1996). Segerstrom and Sephton (2010) also examined
whether optimism predicted positive affect. Their hypothesis that
changes in optimism would predict changes in positive affect was borne
out, as increases in optimism were associated with increased positive
affect, and vice versa. Interestingly, changes in optimism were not
related to changes in negative affect. Thus, it appears that optimism is
uniquely related to positive affect. This means that optimists are
generally happier with their lives than pessimists.
Optimists are also able to recover from disappointments more quickly
by attending to positive outcomes to a greater extent than negative
ones. Litt and colleagues (1992) examined optimism and pessimism in
couples undergoing in-vitro fertilization (IVF) attempts. In this study,
41 women and their husbands were interviewed two weeks prior to the IVF
attempt and two weeks after a subsequent pregnancy test.
Among the
women who received a negative pregnancy test, optimists were better able
than pessimists to cope with failed fertilization attempts by endorsing
thoughts like “this experience has made our relationship stronger”.
Pessimists were more likely to develop depressive symptoms and to feel
personally responsible for the failure of the IVF attempt. This study
suggests that optimists are better able to cope with disappointment by
attending to positive aspects of the setback.
Optimists are also more likely to engage in problem solving when
faced with difficulties, which is itself associated with increased
psychological well-being (e.g., Taylor et al., 1992). HIV-positive
patients who were more optimistic were more likely to plan their
recoveries, seek further information, and avoid self-blame and escapism
(both of which are associated with worse psychological functioning).
Optimists also tend to accept the reality of difficult situations while
also framing them in the best possible light (Carver et al., 1993).
While pessimists tend to cope through denial and abandoning impeded
goals, optimists rely on acceptance and the use of humor. Optimism may
even play a role in the well-being of caregivers for people with chronic
illnesses. Caring for a loved one with a severe, terminal illness can
have serious negative effects on psychological well-being.
However,
optimism appears to protect against the worst of these effects, as
optimism has been associated with less depression and greater well-being
in studies of people caring for others with cancer (Given et al.,
1993), Alzheimer’s (Hooker et al., 1992), and mental disorders (Singh et
al., 2004). The association between optimism and coping with other,
less extreme difficulties has been investigated, as well.
For example,
in one study of college freshman, measures of optimism, hope, and
well-being were administered immediately upon beginning college
(Aspinwall & Taylor, 1992). At the end of the semester, measures of
well-being were again administered. Optimism at the beginning of college
predicted a smoother, psychologically healthier transition to college
life, as well as larger groups of new friends.
With all of the research presented above, it is clear that optimism
is a powerful tool in our repertoire to keep us healthy, happy, and
alive. This news is great for people who are “natural” optimists, but
what about others who don’t generally “look on the bright side”? Can
“natural” pessimists learn to become more optimistic?
Can a Pessimist Become an Optimist?
Martin Seligman, father of positive psychology, began his career
studying depression, stress, and anxiety. From his work in these areas,
he discovered that the optimistic explanatory style described above
acted as a protective factor against the development of depression when
faced with difficult circumstances.
For a psychologist, understanding
what makes some people more immune to suffering is beneficial, but it’s
also somewhat unsatisfying if those benefits cannot be extended to other
people. Thus, Seligman set out to understand whether or not optimism
could be learned. Various studies on changing explanatory styles were
conducted, and the general theme of their findings was that optimism
could, indeed, be learned (Gillham, Reivich, Jaycox, & Seligman,
1995).
Following this line of research, a curriculum was developed for
school children to attempt to inculcate in them an optimistic
explanatory style. Children were selected as the population of interest
as their personalities are more malleable than adults, as they are still
forming and have not “solidified”. Thus, they represent a perfect
population for testing the idea that psychological interventions can
modify a person’s personality.
The program, called the Penn Resiliency
Program (PRP), operates under the idea that instilling optimism in young
people might serve to protect them from developing depressive symptoms
in the future as sort of a “psychological immunization”. It relies on
teachers and school counselors to administer 12 sessions of
intervention, in which students are taught, among other things, how to
change the types of thoughts that are consistent with the pessimistic
explanatory style. Multiple studies have used strict randomized
controlled trial criteria to evaluate the efficacy of this program. One
study (Gillham et al., 2007) examined the use of the PRP in nearly 700
middle school students across three schools.
Children were assigned to
the PRP, to a program (Penn Enhancement Program [PEP]) that focused on
stressors common in adolescent life, including self-esteem, peer
pressure, and family conflict, or to a control condition in which
students received no intervention. Students were assessed on measures of
depressive symptoms and well-being two weeks after the final session
and then every six months for the subsequent three years.
In two of the
three schools, 20% fewer students in the PRP condition reported elevated
depressive symptoms three years post-intervention when compared to the
control group, and nearly 10% fewer when compared to the PEP. This
evidence seems to support the idea that optimism can be developed and
nurtured in young people, though similar programs have not been
developed for adults. More research is necessary, but it appears that
optimism can be trained or learned. Thus, there is a promising argument
to be made that anyone can learn to derive the numerous benefits of
optimism.
Conclusions: Where do we go from here?
Countless studies have been conducted on optimism, and the vast
majority of them support the same conclusions: optimism is healthy!
Optimists live longer, have better functioning immune systems, cope
better with difficult circumstances, and even have healthier babies. Are
there downsides?
There are a few. For instance, there is some evidence
that under certain circumstances, optimism can actually suppress immune
functioning. For a certain subset of the law student sample profiled in
Segerstrom and Sephton (2010), more difficult stressors coupled with
higher levels of optimism actually predicted
worse immune
functioning (Segerstrom, 2006).
The reasons for this are unclear, but
one explanation might be that optimism was mostly linked to negative
outcomes in law students who stayed close to home for law school. For
these students, there might be greater competing pressures between
social goals (spending time with friends and loved ones) and performing
optimally in graduate school. With a finite amount of time and energy,
coupled with the tendency of optimists to persevere in the face of
difficulty, these students might simply be exhausting their body’s
resources.
Optimism has also been linked to health behaviors that can
have negative consequences. For example, one study found that optimistic
teenage girls were less likely than less optimistic peers to seek
information about HIV testing. Furthermore, they were less likely to
actually get tested (Goodman, Chesney, & Tipton, 1995). These
examples indicate that optimism may have its downsides, but the good
outcomes related to it far outweigh the negatives.
It’s apparent from the PRP studies that optimism can be nurtured in
children, but what about adults? Studies that have investigated this
question have relied on one-on-one cognitive behavioral therapy to
improve levels of optimism, but no large-scale intervention has yet been
developed. Further research is necessary to determine whether
non-clinical interventions can be used to foster optimism. It stands to
reason that changing automatic negative thoughts should be possible in
PRP-style interventions for adults, but this is a question that will
need to be answered with solid data.
Ultimately, there is a large, scientifically valid body of research
that indicates that optimistic people are generally better off in life
than pessimists. This is a growing area of research, and the future of
positive thinking research is promising.
